Hunchback of Notre Dame :: essays research papers

THE HUNCHBACK OF NOTRE DAME In Paris, under the rule of Louis XI, the yearly Festival of Fools is in progress. From on the forceful Notre Dame church building, Quasimodo, a disfigured hunchback who rings the chimes, looks down on the group in hatred. Likewise in the group is Dom Claude, the merciful minister of Notre Dame, and his detestable sibling, Jehan. Clopin, a vagabond who has been delegated &quot;King of the Beggars,&quot; requires his received girl Esmeralda to move for the gathering. As Esmeralda passes by the window of Gudule, the elderly person reviles her, for quite a long time before her little girl had been taken by rovers. Esmeralda moves for the group, while high above in the royal residence of Louis XI, Phoebus, a youthful skipper of the gatekeeper, respects the pretty young lady, however he is promised to Fleur de Lis, the niece of Madame de Gondelaurier. That night, Jehan has Quasimodo snatch Esmeralda for him, yet Phoebus is on the lookout and impedes the endeavor. Phoebus takes Esm eralda out for a delayed dinner and endeavors to entrap her with his charms. She is wearing a jewelry given to her by her mom when she was an infant which she says shields her from all malicious. Phoebus has a difference in heart and chooses not to constrain his considerations on the young lady, however she has all the earmarks of being willing. The Court of Miracles is the alcove for all the poor people of Paris, so named on the grounds that here the visually impaired see, and the faltering walk. Gringoire, an innocuous writer, has unearthed the Court and is going to be hanged by the horde, however Esmeralda intervenes and he is discharged. From this point forward, Gringoire turns into her reliable hireling. Quasimodo is gone after for his assault on Esmeralda and is requested to be lashed for an hour in the open square. He is beaten ruthlessly and toward the finish of the time, he weeps for water. Esmeralda, feeling sorry for the poor mammoth presents to him a beverage and Quasimo do is everlastingly in her obligation. Quasimodo likewise remembers how Jehan deceived him, and he loathes him from there on. Madame Gondelaurier gives a ball and Phoebus brings Esmeralda, wearing the best of garments, and presents her as a Princess of Egypt. Clopin has discovered that Phoebus has taken Esmeralda as his toy, and he breaks into the ball requesting her arrival. To forestall gore, Esmeralda leaves with Clopin, down and out. Esmeralda has Gringoire carry a note to Phoebus requesting that he meet her one final time at <a href=http://www.

Freedom of Religion or Belief in Russia Essay -- Russian federation con

This paper will introduce opportunity of religion or faith in the Russian alliance setting. It will concentrate on how religion is rehearsed in Russia, the connection between individuals with various strict practices, pressures cause by contrasts in religion, and government intercessions towards religion and conviction. The Russian Federation like some other state developed laws that direct opportunity of religion and conviction. Distinctive state develop diverse law dependent on; standard law, rules, court presidents, managerial guidelines and some more, while Russia picked the constitution. As indicated by The Constitution of Russian Federation (1993), â€Å"Everyone will be ensured the privilege to opportunity of heart, to opportunity of strict love, including the option to purport, separately or mutually with others, any religion, or to proclaim no religion, to unreservedly pick, have and scatter strict or different convictions, and to act in similarity with them.† It isn't each nation that acknowledge and regard every strict practice, a few nations practice close to two religions, anyway the Russian organization have multiple religions. As per the RussiaPedia, (2013: web), there are four authority religions in Russia. Russian alliance rehearses Buddhism, Christianity, Judaism, Islam and different religions that added to the authentic foundation of its religion and culture. â€Å"Decades of Soviet principle left their imprint: up to half of Russians announce themselves skeptics, despite the fact that figures shift. â€Å"(RussiaPedia 2013: Internet). The previous Russian laws molded the cutting edge strict laws. The previous communis... ...s. Accessible from: http://www.goodreads.com/cites/tag/history-rehashing itself RT News 8 February 2012. Putin Promises to secure Christianity around the world. http://rt.com/legislative issues/putin-remote make-delegates 797/ Gotten to: 2014.03.19 U.S. Division of State. 2012. Worldwide Freedom of Religion Report for 2012. http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm?dlid#wrapper Gotten to: 2014.03.19 Joined Nations cybershoolbus. (1996-2014). http://www.un.org/cyberschoolbus/humanrights/announcement/18.asp Gotten to: 2014.03.19 The Constitution of the Russian Federation. (1993). Part two of Section one. Accessible from: http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/russian/const/ch2.html The New York Times, 16 September 2000. Strict Freedom in Russia. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/16/conclusion/strict opportunity in-russia.html Gotten to: 2014.03.19

An Analytical Biography of The Catcher in the Rye Essay Example for Free

An Analytical Biography of The Catcher in the Rye Essay Pundit Jonathan Baumbach investigates the centrality of blamelessness in J.D Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye. He guarantees that the novel isn't just about blamelessness, however effectively for guiltlessness as though holding one’s childness were a current chance. That, yet he expresses that Holden wishes to be a holy person: the defender and hero of guiltlessness by keeping them from falling into the barbarous grown-up universe of defilement and whimsicalness. In spite of the fact that he likewise needs somebody to forestall his own fall since he is in reality still a kid himself. Baumbach states this is Holden’s conundrum, saying that he should shed his own guiltlessness to ensure honesty. These announcements are what send Holden off into the multi day soul-looking through journey that fates Holden to sinking into craziness in our novel. The pundit opens with a somewhat illustrative understanding about how others view and study Salinger’s solitary novel, just as pointing a portion of the blemishes that Catcher has: â€Å"The tale is wistful; it stacks the deck for Holden and against the grown-up world, the little however degenerate gathering that Holden experiences isn't agent enough to allow Salinger his comprehensive decisions about the species.† Baumbach claims that Holden needs more data to remark on the phoniness of mankind all in all dependent on his perceptions of just a chosen few. As the pundit researches further, he makes a couple of fascinating focuses. Some of which respect Mr. Antolini: Holden’s previous English instructor. Baumbach claims that Antolini’s consideration to Holden is activated by a gay intrigue that he has in the hero. Pointingâ out the blemishes in his instructors marriage, just as questionable activities that he had done while with Caulfield. In view of Baumbach’s confused understanding the peruser could be lead to feel that of Mr. Antolini’s signal as one of a debased elderly person as opposed to as one of concerned guide. Furthermore, the pundit proceeds onward to talk about Holden’s worry of where the ducks go throughout the winter. He asserts that what Holden truly needs to know is whether there is a considerate position that deals with the ducks; for if there is one for the ducks, there is must be one for individuals also. Next, Baumbach changes center to Holden’s petition to Allie, which happens before he goes to visit his family’s loft. The pundit proposes that Holden’s petition to Allie isn't so much a demonstration of anguish as a demonstration of adoration. Notwithstanding, on the off chance that one intently analyzes the scene in the novel, the peruser will understand that Holden’s petition is really the demonstration of one floundering in self centeredness, of one that has genuinely wound up in a sorry situation. Subsequent to inspecting Jonathan Baumbach’s scrutinize I can suspect that he is a brilliant essayist, he utilizes a bright jargon and his sentences are consummately organized. Albeit a line ought to be drawn when utilizing progressively complex jargon; for while perusing the investigate the peruser will probably wind up looking into a few words to comprehend the focuses the pundit is attempting get over. That, yet the pundit makes a few suspicions dependent on almost no data or puts it all on the line to come to a meaningful conclusion. In addition, Baumbach’s focuses with respect to Mr. Antolini’s gay nature, the criticalness of the Central Park ducks, just as Holden’s petition to Allie are not so much concrete, and leave themselves open for question. At the point when a peruser experiences a book more than once, they discover things they never got while perusing it through the first run through. One would understand that Holden sees Mr. Antolini as a dad figure and a good example and comes to him searching for all the responses to the inquiries nobody has made sense of yet. For instance, during the story when Holden shows up at Mr. Antolini’s condo, He realizes that Holden is spiraling descending and is essentially intending to fall into that craziness he has been floating towards throughoutâ the novel, he cautions him of this and in the long run the two head to rest. Presently the questionable activity that makes a portion of the crowd accept that Mr. Antolini is explicitly intrigued by Caulfied, is that he got up to discover him stroking his hair. Holden misjudged and settled on such an imprudent choice to place everybody into that Phony degenerate persona that he accepts humankind is made out of, and storms off out of his home. On the off chance that Holden was thinking all the more unmistakably he would’ve likely had the option to deal with the circumstance all the more dependably, understanding that Antolini was just stroking his hair in to a greater extent a concerned protective way. The peruser can judge by the way Holden alludes to Mr. Antolini they have a solid relationship and he sees him as a proxy father, and not some distorted elderly person that Baumbach has painted him out to be. Furthermore, As far as the Central Park ducks are concerned†¦Holden’s over the top interest in what befalls the ducks throughout the winter shows the more youngster like side to his character. Despite the fact that Baumbach accepts that Holden is scanning for a higher force, rather causes him identify with that youngster honesty he is so partial to. It gives him the expectation that change isn’t constantly perpetual. It additionally enables the peruser to think about Holden’s ideal world in which time stops (Like in the Museum of Natural History), to this present reality which is continually evolving. Demonstrating that he isn’t scanning for a â€Å"higher power† in the ducks, however it was an approach to stay in contact with his honesty of his youth. Ultimately, when Holden winds up in a sorry situation in the novel he says a supplication to Allie, in which Baumbach claims that it is a demonstration of adoration and anguish. Despite the fact that, this isn’t altogether obvious. Holden is really floundering in his own self centeredness, how might he implore Allie for help when while Allie was alive he wouldn’t even permit him to go on his bicycle with him and a companion? Indeed, he feels lament for it since he is dead and no longer with him, however it occurred once more when Phoebe needed to flee with him and Caulfied turned her down equivalent to he had finished with Allie. Demonstrating that in the wake of winding up in a sorry situation Holden is sufficiently edgy to implore in spite of the fact that he doesn’t really put stock in God, yet is trusting that there is one to spare him as well as the spirit of his expired sibling also. All in all, Baumbach as a pundit wrote an elegantly composed survey of J.D Salinger’s Catcher in the Rye despite the fact that it was somewhat hard to comprehend on occasion, he made an understood point and sponsored up his point with realities from the novel. He had brilliant jargon and his scrutinize streamed well together. In spite of the fact that the scrutinize was a piece on the more drawn out side I enjoyed understanding it. The Catcher in the Rye which is accepted to be J.D Salinger’s most well known work, had been an everlasting most loved of youngsters and tweens of the scholarly scene. This tale known for its adapted writing and spotlight on subjects of apprehension, estrangement, and defiance has gotten wide approval for its exceptional feeling of creativity. This epic will suffer as a lifetime most loved of puberty wherever in light of the fact that it has life and is likely the most unique bit of now is the ideal time.

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Symbolism in English Literature - 2444 Words

Archetypal figures present in Chaucer’s â€Å"The Miller’s Tale† By Josà © Luis Guerrero Cervantes According to Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, an archetype is a symbolic formula that begins to work wherever there are no conscious ideas present. They are innate universal psychic dispositions that form the substrate from which the basic themes of human life emerge[1]. The archetype is experienced in projections, powerful affect images, symbols, moods, and behavior patterns such as rituals, ceremonials and love. Jung[2] compared the archetype, the pre-formed tendency to create images, to a dry river bed. Rain gives form and direction to the flow, we name the river, but it is never a thing located in any place, it is a form but never the same,†¦show more content†¦And she had plucked her eyebrows into bows, Slenderly arched they were, and black as sloes; And a more truly blissful sight to see She as than blossom on a cherry-tree, [†¦] Her mouth was sweet as mead or honey –say A hoard of apples lying in the hay. Skittish she was, and jolly as a colt, Tall as a mast and upright as a bolt Out of bow. [†¦] She was a daisy, O a lollypop For any nobleman to take to bed Or some good man of yeoman stock to wed.[9] Everything in her is lovely. Chaucer centers his attention on the physical description and little is said about her character. However, the adjectives â€Å"skittish†, â€Å"jolly†, â€Å"tall† and â€Å"upright† describe her as someone irreproachable in any sense. After she falls in love with Alison, all the marvelous image of Alison disappears when she decides to play a cruel joke to Absalon: Absalon started wiping his mounth dry. Dark was the night as pitch, as black as coal, And at the window out she put her hole, And Absalon, so fortune framed the farce, Put up his mouth and kissed her naked arse Most savorously before he knew of this.[10] As it can be observed, Alison’s attitude changes dramatically after meeting Nicholas (the object of desire). This desire unleashes those feelings that are the negative counterpart of the male â€Å"Animus†. â€Å"Eve† development of â€Å"Anima† helps toShow MoreRelatedSamuel Clemens : The Father Of American Literature1614 Words   |  7 PagesAmerican Literature is a literary genre that is one of the many branches formed from the much broader literary genre, English Literature. Stories such as The Great Gatsby, Of Mice and Men, The Crucible, and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer are all popular examples of American Literature. Many of the most well-known written works of American Literature can be funneled back to one person, Samuel Clemens. Many people might say, who is Samuel Clemens? However, if they are informed of his â€Å"pen† name, theyRead MoreEnglish Language Arts Lesson Plan: Edgar Allen Poes The Raven618 Words   |  3 PagesEnglish Langua ge Arts Lesson In this activity, I have planned a lesson reviewing the infamous poem, The Raven by Edgar Allen Poe. The lesson itself is intended to follow the Alabama State Standards for Seventh Grade Language Arts. According to the state standards for literature, the form, theme, tone, and syntax of poems must be analyzed and understood, as stated in standards one through 6 (Alabama Learning Exchange, 2010). Thus the following activities are meant to be undertaken by studentsRead MoreSir Gawain and The Green Knight Essay1109 Words   |  5 Pagesthree is linked with magic in folklore and with the Trinity in Christian symbolism† (Blanch 4). There are many things within this narration which resemble symbolism of a much larger meaning. The Gawain Poet uses the green girdle, the number three and the pentangle as symbolism with in the story. The pentangle symbolizes the virtues to which Gawain aspires and the faultless in his five senses. The green girdle’s symbolism changes over the course of the narrative, the color is linked to the greenRead MoreGeoffrey Chaucer s Impact On Literature1231 Words   |  5 PagesGeoffrey Chaucer’s Impact on Literature: English poet Geoffrey Chaucer is acclaimed to be one of the best and most influential poets in history. Geoffrey Chaucer wrote several famous literary works in what is called middle English. Geoffrey Chaucer was born in 1340 in London, England. Over the course of Chaucer’s life, he entered and exited several different social classes. He began to write his most known pieces when he became a public servant to Countess Elizabeth of Ulster in 1357. He diedRead MoreStevenson and Conrad: The Duality of Human Nature 949 Words   |  4 PagesConrad also employs the literary device of symbolism to further display the theme, the duality of human nature in his novella Heart of Darkness. Three major examples of symbolism are evident in this novella. These examples include, light and dark, the Congo River, and ivory. Similar to Stevenson, Conrad uses light and dark symbolism throughout his novella. Yet curiously in Heart of Darkness, light does not symbolize genuine goodness nor doe s dark symbolize pure calamity. Marlow proves this when heRead MoreJane Eyre vs Wide Sargasso Sea Essay example1635 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Tyler Perimenis Professor Mathews English 2301W 21 October 2014 Symbolism through Theme Of Jane Eyre and Wide Sargasso Sea â€Å"To produce a mighty book, you must choose a mighty theme. No great and enduring volume can ever be written on the flea, though many there be that have tried it,† stated Herman Melville. As implied, without theme, no novel can be considered â€Å"mighty† or have any depth. Theme is essential in any work of art. Jane Eyre is a novel by Charlotte Brontà « that takes the readerRead MoreHow The Cask of Amontillado Uses Symbolism and Irony1291 Words   |  6 Pages Often, writers use symbolism to describe an object with more clarity to the reader. It provides additional layers of meaning to a text. Symbolism is not only important in literature but is also important in everyday life. For instance, symbolism is found in colors, objects, and on flowers. For example a rose can represent love and romance. Symbolism is used in literature, movies, and even on street signs. Such as the colors in the street light: red means stop, yellow means slow down, and the greenRead MoreSymbolism in the Masque of the Red Death by Edgar Allen Poe1655 Words   |  7 PagesSymbolism in The Masque of the Red Death The Masque of the Red Death is a short story written by acclaimed literary author, Edgar Allen Poe. The story is an emphasis on the fact that there is no avoiding death, no matter how hard you try, which is the overall theme. The text tells the story of Prince Prospero whose town is being plagued by the dreaded Red Death. He attempts to avoid the plague by inviting 1,000 of his closest friends, all of which are variably different, to isolate themselvesRead More Comparing Symbols and Symbolism in Blue Hotel, Black Cat, Night, Alfred Prufrock, Red Wheelbarrow1620 Words   |  7 PagesColor Symbolism in Blue Hotel,  Black Cat, Night,  Alfred Prufrock,  Red Wheelbarrow      Ã‚  Ã‚   Symbolism of colors is evident in much of literature. The Blue Hotel by Stephen Crane, The Black Cat of Edgar Allan Poe, Night by William Blake, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock by T. S. Eliot, and The Red Wheelbarrow by William Carlos Williams encompass examples of color symbolism from both the prose and the poetry of literature. When drawing from various modes of psychology, interpretationsRead MoreHow Theme Shapes a Story632 Words   |  3 PagesRunning Head: Theme How Theme Shapes a Story By Trina Carr English 125 Instructor: Clifton Edwards Running Head: Theme page 1 Like many people who haven’t studied literature, if someone asked me what the theme of a story was, I would have given a synopsis of the story detailing the actions and characters in it. As I have come to learn, theme is much more than a distilled retelling of a story

Corporate America And The Corruption Within The Hip Hop...

Corporate America and the Corruption within the Hip-Hop Culture Being one of the more controversial lifestyles, the hip-hop culture has overcome many obstacles in the years to gain the respect it currently holds today. Indeed, there is still much controversy that lingers around the people within the movement, but â€Å"when untainted by outside influences and corporate vultures, hip-hop in its purest form is about empowerment, unity, culture, creativity, and hope† (Elkouby). The negative notions that regard the hip-hop culture can be attributed to corporate America and its failure to properly monitor radio play, its lack of trust within the record labels, and its greedy head honchos that build up artists only to see them fall in order to pocket the money for themselves. A crucial element in the success of many artists is the amount of radio play they receive. Obtaining playtime has never been easy, and just like many other things that are difficult to obtain, a black market has developed in order for artists to receive radio play. â€Å"Payola, in the music industry, is the illegal practice of payment or other inducement by record companies for the broadcast of recordings on commercial radio in which the song is presented as being part of the normal day’s broadcast† and not the day’s sponsored broadcast (â€Å"Payola†). Artists benefit from their songs being played on the radio because their songs can be heard by millions of others, which will in turn build their fan base. There is only soShow MoreRelatedRap Music And Its Effects On America1649 Words   |  7 PagesRap was originally created as a means of self-expression, while conveying present conditions within marginalized African American communities. Attaining global awareness in America, rap music emerged as one of the most controversial genres America has seen, influencing both white and black culture. Birthed in the mid- 1970’s rap music came to fruition in the Southern Bronx area of New York City. As rap culture began to emerge and grow in New York, rappers began to utilize their voice and voice theirRead MoreMonsanto: Better Living Through Genetic Engineering96204 Words   |  385 Pageseffective case analysis: The full story Hearing with the aid of implanted technology: The case of Cochlearâ„ ¢ – an Australian C A S E O N E high-technology leader Delta Faucet: Global entrepreneurship in an emerging market C A S E T W O DaimlerChrysler: Corporate governance dynamics in a gl obal company C A S E T H R E E Gunns and the greens: Governance issues in Tasmania C A S E F O U R Succeeding in the Sydney indie music industry C A S E F I V E Nucor in 2005 C A S E S I X News Corp in 2005: ConsolidatingRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 PagesITC New Baskerville Std Credits and acknowledgments borrowed from other sources and reproduced, with permission, in this textbook appear on the appropriate page within text. Copyright  © 2013, 2011, 2009, 2007, 2005 by Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Prentice Hall. All rights reserved. Manufactured in the United States of America. This publication is protected by Copyright, and permission should be obtained from the publisher prior to any prohibited reproduction, storage in a retrieval systemRead MoreMarketing Mistakes and Successes175322 Words   |  702 Pagessuccesses/Robert F. Hartley. —11th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-470-16981-0 (pbk.) 1. Marketing—United States—Case studies. I. Title. HF5415.1.H37 2009 658.800973—dc22 2008040282 ISBN-13 978-0-470-16981-0 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 PREFACE Welcome to the 30th anniversary of Marketing Mistakes and Successes with this 11th edition. Who would have thought that interest in mistakes would be so enduring? Many of you are pastRead More_x000C_Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis355457 Words   |  1422 Pagespermission to use material from this text or product, submit a request online at http://www.thomsonrights.com. Any additional questions about permissions can be submitted by e-mail to thomsonrights@thomson.com. Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11 10 09 08 07 ExamView  ® and ExamView Pro  ® are registered trademarks of FSCreations, Inc. Windows is a registered trademark of the Microsoft Corporation used herein under license. Macintosh and Power Macintosh are registered trademarksRead MoreIgbo Dictionary129408 Words   |  518 Pagesenormously since the first edition of this dictionary, and the standardization and development of the language have also progressed under the leadership of a group of dedicated linguists and the enthusiasts of the Society for Promoting Igbo language and Culture. A dictionary of Standard Igbo is now seriously needed; it is hoped that the present work will be one of the sources for such a dictionary. The complete text was revised in 1976-77 with the assistance of Mr Alphonsus A. Ndife, then a student at the

Global Comparative Law Practices of the Western Legal system

Question: Which is the National Advertisings Most important stakeholder, business or consumers? Answer: In my opinion I agree that the Global comparative law practices of the Western Legal system is ethical as it follows the standards of the Global business codex (Paine et al 2005). The arguments which are going to be discussed throughout this essay are Human Rights, Bribery and Monopolisation of industry The Western Legal system complies with the dignity principle b using human rights to ensure Business should support and respect the protection of internationally pro-claim human rights with their sphere of influence. In my opinion I agree that the Global comparative law practices of the Western Legal system is ethical as it follows the standards of the Global business codex (Paine et al 2005). The arguments which are going to be discussed throughout this essay are Human Rights, Bribery and Monopolisation of industry. The Western Legal system complies with the dignity principle b using human rights to ensure Business should support and respect the protection of internationally pro-claim human rights with their sphere of influence. Growth of Global comparative law has been seen in the Global comparative law and the main reason behind the same has been the growth both Global comparative law independent brands and in house store brands of the super market itself. In case one can see the example of a survey which shows that in European countries search was done on 78,900 global comparative law point of sales points and among the same around 56,700 points were in the form of supermarkets. With a topic like ethics being fuzzy, there are no clear checklists to fall back on. What is needed is principles, guidelines and your own organizationally-agreed-upon moral compass of what constitutes "the right thing to do." Introduction This is where a code of conduct comes in. The core idea of a code of conduct to promote a commitment a moral obligation to "do the right thing" and place that commitment higher than a commitment to "get a job done" while meeting the needs of an employer or client. Which is the National Advertisings Most important stakeholder, business or consumers? The main stakeholder for the company as of now is to the consumer as the Global comparative law practice suggests that it the consumers right which needs to be protected. A code of conduct usually has the following goals: Describing principles that people that subscribe to the code hold dear, to help in practical decision making. Holding professionals accountable and protecting employers and client from unethical behavior, while at the same time protecting professionals from undesirable requests. Helping to counter unethical behaviors, and offering a process for calling out violations (such as striking professionals from a certain certification). Promoting self-regulation instead of imposed regulation. There are common themes that emerge from these codes of conduct. They point out that Global comparative law must work in a transparent way, being able to show what data they used, and how conclusions were derived. They should provide various options to management, and a clear analysis. Global comparative law should respect the privacy of people when handling personal data. They should assure they are using the right analytical techniques when tackling specific problems, be aware of the limitations of any technique and be certain they are qualified to perform a certain Global comparative law practises in Supermarket. They should respect the opinion of other point of sales in Western Legal system, but be prepared to call out the misconduct of other professionals or clients. In many cases, there simply are no rules. Customers may have differing opinions on how to define the relationship between privacy and value. Ethics determining what is "right" and "wrong" is fuzzy. A different compass is needed. Ultimately it's your organization's and your own personal compass that sets the direction. If you believe business is amoral (that ethics don't apply) then the measures you take to govern analytics are aimed at risk mitigation (and you can stop reading this research note). If you believe that ethics do apply, then they are based on what you believe is the right and the wrong thing to do. Global comparative law practises in Western Legal system services often represent an organization's largest indirect spending category, amounting to hundreds of millions or even billions of dollars for large organizations with more than 10,000 employees. White-collar industries, such as financial services, insurance and consumer software, spend the highest percentage of their budgets on complex services, with as much as 60% to 70% going to Global comparative law practises in Western Legal system services contracts. Improving the governance of and compliance for Global comparative law practises in Western Legal system services procurement spending is of growing interest to buying organizations. No given the current situation the transparency is something which can be compromised an hence partiality of BBB is in question. Most large organizations claim to have Global comparative law practises in Western Legal system services spending under management, but, in terms of robust governance, most merely have a collection of incomplete or insufficient solutions in place. The issue is a chicken-and-egg problem. Accounting system purchasing modules and catalog-based e-procurement solutions provide little support for Global comparative law practises in Western Legal system services spending, and most procurement teams are unaware that there are specialized Global comparative law practises in Western Legal system services procurement solutions. Solutions and best practices for automating direct materials and catalog items are readily available, so procurement teams focus on these work streams first. General ethics through the judgment and actions of people are somewhat fuzzy. Everyone's frame of reference is slightly different, so everyone makes slightly different judgment calls, which are often based on implicit considerations. Although not very reliable on a case-by-case basis, it works out in the larger scheme of things (being fully respectful to any personal impact). One border security officer doing an extra pat-down based on a profile of how someone looks is a nuisance, but with limited exposure. One soldier killing a civilian accidentally is a tragedy, but will not be repeated endlessly. Individual questionable decisions often have a limited reach, and limited consequences. In fact, the different frames of reference mean that ethics evolve based on (hopefully) continuous discussion. The evolution is slow but reliable because of the many points of view that average each other out. Throughout the history of philosophy, many influential philosophers have created or contributed to ethical systems sometimes flat-out contradicting each other, sometimes building on each other. Because there is no single set of rules or principles, you should study the basics of ethical theory in order to understand your own often implicit thinking, as well as to understand the positions that others take. This will help you to take a stand in digital ethics yourself, as guidance in your decision making. Consider this short summary of useful ethical theories for further study: Utilitarianism aims to create the maximum amount of good for the greatest number of people. It focuses on results and consequences of actions more than on rules and intentions. Duty ethics takes an opposite approach and determines and examines rules that people should follow as an obligation to others and to society. The framework of the ethical decision making process in business consists of four factors; namely, Ethical Issue Intensity, Individual Factors, Organizational Factors and These four factors together define and influence the intentions which make a person decide on his/her ethical unethical behavior. Because business practices affect everything from the global economy to the state of the environment, business ethics have never been so widely analyzed, questioned, debated, and reported as they are today. Business ethics relate both to the conduct of organizations as a whole and to the individuals within those organizations. The media has played a significant role in revealing ethical violations committed by both large and small companies over the years, but governments and public initiatives are expected to play the largest roles in combating unethical practices. The framework of social responsibility or the four steps of social responsibility are: Philanthropic: The first step of social responsibility talks about sharing organizations wealth and achievements with society by plough it back in the welfare of society. PETCO has established PETCO foundation to fund establishment of educational and charitable institutes. This foundation has risen over $49 million donation, and supports more than 10,000 animal welfare agencies, since its inception in 1999. Ethical: PETCO has been following ethical issues with grace and dignity. In 2000 and 2005, PETA accused PETCO of being uncaring and cruel towards the pets in their custody. The issue was primarily concerned with the health of large birds. Resolving the issue ethically, PETCO agreed to the terms of PETA and stopped selling large birds and rather began its Think Adoption First campaign to provide shelter to homeless birds of all sizes. Thus, though PETCO is philanthropic and ethical yet it needs to put more efforts in being legally more sound and answerable. In most cultures, the boundaries between right and wrong are established at an early age. We're taught not to lie or steal, to respect other people and their property, and conduct ourselves appropriately. Yet the person who would never dream of stealing merchandise from a retail store might not even think twice about copying a computer game found online. Why the disconnect? Over the past hundred years, the main areas of concern in terms of ethical conduct of organizations have included fair and humane treatment of workers, respect for the environment, honesty in financial reporting, and product safety. As Europe and the United States industrialized rapidly beginning in the middle of the nineteenth century, men, women, and children flocked to growing cities hoping for better futures. They often found, however, that they had traded the hard labor of agricultural life for even more dangerous and difficult labor. The urban poor in England, including very young children, worked in factories and mines for up to 16 hours a day and were often badly mistreated by supervisors. The British government intervened with a series of laws in the mid-nineteenth century, including the 1842 Mines Act, which made it illegal for women and children to work in underground mines; the 1850 Factory Act, which limited working hours for women and children; and the 1878 Factory and Workshop Act, which established rules for government inspection of factories. Conditions in factories in the U.S. were similarly poor. In 1906, American journalist and novelist Upton Sinclair published his groundbreaking bookThe Jung le, an expos of worker exploitation and unsanitary conditions in the meatpacking industry in Chicago. This widely read book horrified the public and resulted in the passage of the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Act in 1906; the latter ultimately led to the creation of the Food and Drug Administration. The environmental movement was born with the publication of Rachel Carson's 1962 bookSilent Spring, which accused the chemical industry of poisoning the environment with pesticides. Businesses around the world found themselves under public and governmental pressure to adopt environmentally friendly practices. Companies that engaged unrepentantly in actions harmful to the environment risked public condemnation and serious financial consequences. In the 1970s, Japan passed some of the most stringent antipollution laws in the world, making polluters liable to their "victims" under civil law. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, various oil-related environmental disasters and scandals sparked public outrage, lawsuits, and boycotts around the world. In 2003, Freeport McMoran, a major copper and gold producer, became embroiled in an international scandal over its mining operations in Indonesia. Critics accused Freeport McMoran of bribing government officials, sanctioning numerous human rights a buses, and causing massive environmental damage. Questions about Freeport McMoran's ethics were serious enough to prompt the managers of the government pension fund of Norwaybelieved to be the largest in the worldto divest from Freeport McMoran. Conclusion Business ethics includes both corporate actions and those of individuals within a corporation. In order to ensure the acceptable behavior of employees, many companies develop and distribute codes of ethics to their staff. During the 1980s and 1990s, as women entered the workplace in increasing numbers, many companies scrambled to implement and enforce appropriate policies forbidding sexual harassment, generally defined as unwanted sexual advances by a supervisor toward an employee. In the United States, sexual harassment is considered a form of sexual discrimination, which is illegal under the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Many larger U.S. companies enforce strict sexual harassment standards and require their supervisors to go through specific training to heighten their awareness of actions, both subtle and overt, that might be regarded as harassment. Many other nations have adopted laws specifically addressing sexual harassment, although definitions vary from country to country. In Indi a, for example, any unwelcome sexual gesturewhether verbal, nonverbal, or physicalis forbidden. In Russia, sexual harassment is more narrowly construed as direct pressure or intimidation by a superior seeking sexual contact with an employee. References For Love or Money? Global comparative law Business Models in the UK Supermarket Sector Author(s): Sally SmithSource: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 92, Supplement 2: GLOBAL COMPARATIVE LAW IN DIFFERENTNATIONAL CONTEXT (2010), pp. 257-266 Sustainable Development Sust. Dev. 13, 190198 (2005) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/sd.277 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2002). Report to the Senate on Prices Paid to Suppliers in the Australian Grocery Industry. ACCC, Canberra. Cotterill, R.W. (2006). Antitrust analysis of supermarkets: global concerns playing out in local markets, The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 50, 1732. Evans, S. (2005). Retail giants hit local growth limits, Australian Financial Review , 24 May, 22. A toothless chihuahua? The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, neoliberalism and supermarket power in Australia CAROL RICHARDS, GEOFFREY LAWRENCE, MARK LOONG AND DAVID BURCH University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK For Love or Money? Global comparative law Business Models in the UK Supermarket Sector Author(s): Sally SmithSource: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 92, Supplement 2: GLOBAL COMPARATIVE LAW IN DIFFERENTNATIONAL CONTEXT (2010), pp. 257-266 Sustainable Development Sust. Dev. 13, 190198 (2005) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/sd.277 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2002). Report to the Senate on Prices Paid to Suppliers in the Australian Grocery Industry. ACCC, Canberra. Cotterill, R.W. (2006). Antitrust analysis of supermarkets: global concerns playing out in local markets, The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 50, 1732. Evans, S. (2005). Retail giants hit local growth limits, Australian Financial Review , 24 May, 22. A toothless chihuahua? The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, neoliberalism and supermarket power in Australia CAROL RICHARDS, GEOFFREY LAWRENCE, MARK LOONG AND DAVID BURCH University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK For Love or Money? Global comparative law Business Models in the UK Supermarket Sector Author(s): Sally SmithSource: Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 92, Supplement 2: GLOBAL COMPARATIVE LAW IN DIFFERENTNATIONAL CONTEXT (2010), pp. 257-266 Sustainable Development Sust. Dev. 13, 190198 (2005) Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/sd.277 Australian Competition and Consumer Commission (2002). Report to the Senate on Prices Paid to Suppliers in the Australian Grocery Industry. ACCC, Canberra. Cotterill, R.W. (2006). Antitrust analysis of supermarkets: global concerns playing out in local markets, The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics 50, 1732. Evans, S. (2005). Retail giants hit local growth limits, Australian Financial Review , 24 May, 22. A toothless chihuahua? The Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, neoliberalism and supermarket power in Australia CAROL RICHARDS, GEOFFREY LAWRENCE, MARK LOONG AND DAVID BURCH University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

The Issue of Stereotyping in the US

Educational Linguistics

Educational Linguistics Free Online Research Papers 1. 00 INTRODUCTION First named as a field 30 years ago and defined in two introductory books (Spolsky, 1978; Stubbs, 1986), the title â€Å"educational linguistics† was proposed by Bernard Spolsky in 1972 for a discipline whose primary task would be â€Å"to offer information relevant to the formulation of language education policy and to its implementation† (1974:554). It is an area of study that integrates the research tools of linguistics and other related disciplines of the social sciences in order to investigate holistically the broad range of issues related to language and education. In his book â€Å"The Handbook of Educational Linguistics†, Spolsky (2008) says that he first proposed the term â€Å"educational linguistics† (EL) because of his dissatisfaction with efforts to define the field of applied linguistics and of his belief in the close relationship among research, theory, policy, and practice. He asserted that it should be a problem-oriented discipline, focusing on the needs of practice and drawing from available theories and principles of relevant fields including many subfields of linguistics (Hornberger, 2001). Pica also supports this idea and sees it as a problem- and practice- based field â€Å"whose research questions, theoretical structures, and contributions of service are focused on issues and concerns in education† (1994: 265). With the responsibility it has taken for L1 and L2 learning, EL has become particularly influential on the scholars engaged in Foreign Language Education (FLE), who attempt to understand how teachers teach and how students learn languages in schools, and especially how they acquire foreign literacy skills, that is, the ability not only to comprehend and interpret but also to create written texts in the foreign language. FLE has become, since the 1920s, a highly scientific field of research that draws its insights mostly from social and educational psychology, thus educational linguistics (Kramsch, 2000). In the following sections, educational linguistics will be examined in detail creating associations with foreign language learning/teaching (FLL/FLT). In addition to the background information and its relations to a number of approaches, theories, and methods; its principles and how they are implemented in ELT settings will be discussed. Moreover, its relations to language teacher education and its contributions to FLL and FLT will be put forward. Finally, advantages and disadvantages of educational linguistics will be given in an objective way. 2.00 RELATED APPROACHES, THEORIES, AND METHODS The problem-oriented nature of EL leads it to look to linguistics together with other relevant disciplines such as theoretical linguistics, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, anthropological linguistics, neurolinguists, clinical linguistics, pragmatics, discourse analysis and educational psychology. This transdiciplinary structure provides it to be associated with a number of approaches, theories and methods. 2.01 Whole Language Approach Rigg (1991) claims that the term â€Å"whole language† comes from educators not from linguists. It is an approach developed by educational linguists in 1980s to teach literacy in the mother tongue, which is one of the important issues that educational linguists are concerned. In this approach, it is emphasized that learning goes from whole to part for the reason that the whole is not equal to the sum of the parts. Actually, it can be traced back to Gestalt Psychology, which is a theory of mind and brain proposing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic. Similarly, Whole Language Approach adopts the view that learning cannot be achieved through isolated entities; that exacly corresponds to the educational linguists’ hatred for segmental phonogy and their insistance on educational phonology. 2.02 Humanistic Approach Humanistic Approach originated by Carl Rogers in 1951 (Demirezen, 2008), also has close links with EL in the sense that it focuses on the emotional side of learning and the principles such as learner-centeredness, cooperation and unearting students’ potentials, which are also basic elements of educational psychology, and thus EL. 2.03 Communicative Approach Communicative Approach is also associated with EL regarding the idea that the fundamental aim of language instruction should be communicating in the target language. In order to achieve this, it is not sufficient to have a comprehensive knowledge of language forms and functions; what is further needed is exchange of meanings in real communication. 2.04 Discourse Theory Discourse theory and especially discourse analysis play a significant role in Educational Linguistics. As Stubb (1986) stresses that it is important to distinguish between language in education and linguistics in education, referring to the need to study language â€Å"in its own terms† (1986:232), as a discourse system, rather than treating language at the level of isolated surface features, ignoring its abstract, underlying, sequential and hierarchic organization. 2.05 Interactionist Theory In parallel with communicative approach, interactionist theory also puts emphasis on the effect of social environment in which linguistic competence can be turned out to be communicative competence through interaction and by the help of nonverbal components, much more meaningful language learning can be achieved, as proposed by educational linguists. It is worth noting that â€Å"classroom interaction† is the core of educational linguistics research. According to the associations given above, it is obvious that communicative language teaching, silent way, suggestopedia, TPR and other methods such as task-based and competency-based language teaching can also be linked to educational linguistics. 3.00 THE BIRTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS As a research area, educational linguistics is very young. Its birth occured in 1972 with the works of Bernard Spolsky in America. As mentioned earlier, it grew from the discomfort with the ambiguity of the term â€Å"applied linguistics†. Therefore, the history of educational linguistics is inextricably linked to applied linguistics. Since its inception, applied linguistics has had a broad scope, but it is language and education that has come to be dominant (Spolsky, 2008). In 1950s, it included a wide range of topics (linguistic geography, dictionary and literature, rhetoric, stylistics, lexicography, general language planning, etc.); however, while ELT was gaining momentum in 1960s and booming by the 1970s, many of these areas which were included in applied linguistics either received less attention or became the object of interest of other developing areas of study. The problems and controversies regarding the nature and scope of applied linguistics were driving forces in Spolsky’s decision to formulate a more precise title for the research studies specifically related to language and education. Moreover, there was also an implication in the term applied linguistics that linguistics is simply applied to issues of social practice. Such a â€Å"unidirectional† approach is undesirable and even dangerous especially in education where attempts by linguists to insert their theories directly into practice have led to disastrous results in, for example, phonemic approaches to reading and audiolingual approaches to general language learning (Spolsky, 2003: 503). Spolsky felt that applied linguistics in broad sense obscures the work specifically devoted to language and education. He also felt that to use applied linguistics in a narrow sense to refer to only language education research obscures the multiplicity of the work being done within the field in other domains. Namely, the term applied linguistics was imprecise and disadvantaging for everyone concerned (Spolsky, 2008). He first set fourth his vision for its nature in a presentation at the third AILA congress in 1972, later published in its proceedings. Then, in 1976, the department of Educational Linguistics was established at the University of Pennsylvania’s Graduate School of Education within the deanship of Dell Hymes (Hornberger, 2001). In 1978, Spolsky published a seminal monograph on educational linguistics. Moreover, in 1984, the journal Working Papers in Educational Linguistics has been established, and since then, sixteen volumes have been published under student editorial direction which include topics ranging from speech act analysis and classroom discourse to language planning and second language acquisition. At the beginning, people thought that his objective was to provide a new label for applied linguistics. This was largely stemming from a view of applied linguistics as being solely occupied with language and education. However, it was later understood that it’s a â€Å"unified field within the wider discipline of applied linguistics† (Spolsky,1978: 2). And today, it has turned out to be an independent field whose â€Å"starting point is always the practice of education and the focus is squarely on the role of language in learning and teaching (Hornberger, 2001: 19). Now, it is widely believed that it is EL which should be responsible for L1 and L2 learning, not applied linguistics. 4.00 THE NATURE AND COMPOSITION OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS Concerning the nature and composition of EL, Spolsky (2008) puts forward that language teaching takes place in a school and is closely tied to sociological, economic, political, and psychological factors. Therefore, a good language education policy or effective methods of implementation will not ignore linguistics and the other related fields but will represent much more than an application of linguistics. In this respect, educational linguistics is concerned with the dynamic ways in which theory, research, policy, and practice inter-relate, and all work done under the rubric of educational linguistics is focused on this relationship. Actually, what is distinctively important in his original formulation is his â€Å"problem-oriented approach† to doing educational linguistics (Hornberger, 2001). Problem-oriented nature of Educational Linguistics In educational linguistics, one does not simply apply disciplinary knowledge to a specific situation. Instead, the researcher starts with a problem (or theme) related to language and education and then synthesizes the research tools in his/her intellectual repertoire to investigate or explore it (Hornberger and Hult, 2006). Here, the synthesis of research tools refers to a number of methods used in related fields for data acquisition and analysis such as tutorials, observations, surveys, questionnaires, statistics, national/international anthropological archives, goverment information sources, etc. All these research tools present educational linguists the data from different perspectives and help attaining reliable and valid findings for a specific situations. Still, Spolsky admits that linguistics has a central role to play and it is in this area that most educational linguists will have their primary training. However, while there has been a consensus on the relevance of linguistics for education (and also education for linguistics), there is still less clarity as to the nature of this relationship between them: is it application, implication, interpertation or mediation? Or is it coexistance, collaboration, complementarity or compatibility? Spolsky insistently emhasizes that educational linguistics â€Å"should not be, as it often seems, the application of the latest linguistic theory to any available problem†, but rather a problem-oriented discipline focused on the needs of practice (1975:347). He argues that linguistics has applications to and implementations for education, both directly through language descriptions and secondarily through linguistic subfields. At the same time, such a relationship includes the â€Å"coexistance of activities, collaboration of efforts, complementarity of contributions, and compatibility of interests† – a balanced reciprocity which may well serve as a model for theory and practice in the whole of the educational linguistics field (Hornberger, 2001: 9). In educational linguistics, the focus on educational practice is both indirect and direct. The knowledge generated in EL may be used to guide the process of crafting sound educational language policy which is designed to influence practice. On the other hand, this knowledge may be used to guide sound teaching practice as it is implemented in relation to educational language policy. Then, the scope of educational linguistics, Spolsky (2008) later elaborates, is the intersection of linguistics and related language sciences with formal and informal education. One of the core themes in educational linguistics is language policy. Within language policy, it is educational language policy that they are concerned. Educational language policy forms a part of wider national language planning, focusing specifically on the educational sector as â€Å"the transmitter and perpetuator of culture† (Kaplan and Baldauf, 1997: 123). Other themes dealt within EL can be specified as L1 and L2 acquisition, language choice, language and ethnicity, descriptive analysis of speech acts and discourse, educational implications of linguistic diversity, language planning, bilingual education, spoken interaction in professional settings, and biliteracy. 4.01 Subfields of Educational Linguistics Thanks to its problem-oriented nature, educational linguistics has close links with a number of disciplines which are regarded as ‘subfields’ of educational linguistics by Hornberger (2001). This also proves that EL is an independent field, not a subfield of applied linguistics any more, but it has its own subfields. They can be tabulated as follows: Theoretical Linguistics: It is a branch of linguistics concerned with developing models of linguistic knowledge. It involves the search for and explanation of linguistic universals. Syntax, phonology, morphology, and semantics are the core of theoretical linguistics. Sociolinguistics: It is the study of effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used. The chief contribution of sociolinguistics in educational settings has been to draw attention to the differences between language use in the classroom and in students homes and communities. Because it is important to teaching and learning, language is heavily regulated in classrooms. Teacher talk is the name given to the special register that teachers use. It is a means of inducting pupils into specific topics and approaches and imparting instruction. Like all registers, Teacher Talk has developed certain conventions and properties. It typically comprises longer and more complex utterances than the teacher expects from the pupils (Mehan, 1979). Psycholinguistics: It is interdisciplinary in nature and is studied by people in a variety of fields such as psychology, cognitive science and linguistics. Linguistic-related areas are phonetics and phonology (focusing on how the brain processes and understands these sounds), morphology (relationships among words and their formations), syntax (how words are combined together to form sentences), semantics, and pragmatics. Anthropological Linguistics: It is the study of the relations between language and culture, and the relations among human biology, cognition and language. It studies humans through the languages that they use. Neurolinguistics: It is the science concerned with the human brain mechanisms underlying the comprehension, production and abstract knowledge of language, be it spoken, signed or written. Neurolinguistics has highlighted the special role of that part of the human brain known as Broca’s area in crucial aspects of human language, namely syntax: the component of language that involves recursion. Clinical Linguistics: It is a sub-discipline of linguistics and involves the application of linguistic theory to the field of Speech-Language Pathology. The International Clinical Phonetics and Linguistics Association is the unofficial organization of the field and was formed in 1991. They conduct researches with the aims of advancing techniques in assessment and remediation in Speech-Language Pathologists and offering insights to formal linguistic theories. Pragmatics: It is the study of the ability of natural language speakers to communicate more than what is explicitly stated. The ability to understand another speaker’s intended meaning is called pragmatic competence. Another perspective of pragmatics is that it deals with the ways we reach our goals in communication. Discourse Analysis: It is a general term for a number of approaches to analyzing written, spoken or signed language use. Discourse analysis has been taken up in a variety of social science disciplines such as linguistics, sociology and psychology. As stated earlier, it has close links with educational linguistics in the sense that language is a discourse system so it should not be treated at the level of isolated surface features. Educational Psychology: It is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. It informs a wide range of specialities within educational studies, including instructional design, educational technology, curriculum development, organizational learning, special education and classroom management. It both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. Actually, it is one of the most important fields from which educational linguistics benefit. It is clear that linguistics and psychology are indispensable parts of educational linguistics. However, language teaching should not look to educational psychology or linguistics for revelations or discoveries on how to teach language, but should learn to utilize these disciplines to make the vast practical experience in the teaching of foreign languages more meaningful, to evolve definite principles of language teaching and consolidate them in a true science of language learning (Politzer, 1958). 5.00 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS The principles of Educational Linguistics got matured around 1970s by Spolsky giving references to a number of related disciplines. Giving a general framework for the practices of foreign language education, they can be specified as follows: 1. Literacy is at the core of foundations of education. Literacy can be defined as the ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate, compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. It involves a continuum of learning to enable an individual to achieve his or her goals, to develop his or her knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in the wider society. For this reason, EL stresses that literacy should be in primary consideration at each and every stage of educational processes. 2. It is educational linguistics which should be responsible for L1 and L2 acquisition, not applied linguistics. As an independent field of inquiry with its own departments, journals, conferences and scholars specialized in the field, EL is the one which should conduct researches and studies specifically on L1 and L2 learning, and thus seek ways for improving opportunities in language learning contexts. 3. Verbal intelligence is one of the most-used predictors of educational success. Therefore, learners should be encouraged to have sufficient amount of linguistic competence and then turn it into communicative competence. 4. Education needs linguistics since the improvement in language skills of writing, reading, speaking, and listening can only be achieved through knowledge about language. Spolsky (1978) himself admits that linguistics is an indispensible part of language learning process. Without knowing about language itself, it is impossible to use it properly. The important point is the ‘proportion’ that should be allocated for linguistics in language learning. It should be as it is required in foreign language education, not more than that. 5. A learner-centered, holistic, humanistic, and problem-oriented language teaching approach should be adopted. Only in this way, learners’ full potential can be unearthed and they can fulfill the communicative functions of language use. 6. The use of target language in real communication should be the focus of foreign language education. Literacy in foreign language can only be achieved through the use of target language in all stages of learning, and thus teachers should create opportunities for learners to use the language outside the classroom. Especially in the context of foreign language learning and teaching, this can be managed through the use of technological devices. 7. Language education is a whole together with individials, educational setting, curriculum design, and educational language policy. Therefore, language learning process should be considered as a whole with its components and all planning should be made within this framework. In the light of these principles, educational linguists aim at organizing classroom activities so as to fulfill basic functions of foreign language education such as literacy, communicative competence, learner-centered language learning tasks, and attempt to consider language learning/teaching issue in a holistic manner including learners, schools, curricula and national policies of the governments. 6.00 EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS’ RELATIONS TO ELT Even though it is considered as a young field, educational linguistics has been very active since 1970s in the sense that it has strong arguments related to the teaching of English as a second or foreign language. Its emphasis on â€Å"classroom interaction† is one of them. Educational linguists think that as well as it is the core of educational linguistics research, classroom interaction is a significant part of language teaching methodology. It is also important since it is closely associated with power and control in classrooms and schools. Since the main objective of ELT practices is to be able to make students equipped with necessary knowledge of language so that they can communicate well in real world, educational linguistics’ focus on classroom interaction is quite reasonable. On the other hand, Pica (1994) notes that educational linguistics research has shed light upon primarily two domains of practice: design and implementation of learner-centered, communicative curricula and professionalization of the classroom teacher as decision-making educator. Stubbs (1986) also supports the idea and adds that educational linguistics provides teachers with the knowledge of language itself and how to teach it, so this, in turn, helps educators tackle with English language education problems such as the teaching of vocabulary, reading and writing. Teacher’s role is very important in this respect. As well as being a good source of knowledge for the learners, s/he should also act like a psychologist so as to determine proper applications in accordance with learners’ mood, perceptions, backgrounds, etc. Namely, s/he should be a professional need analyst. According to EL, ELT practitioners are required to create an autonomous, interactive and meaningful language learning environment for the learners while making necessary decisions in accordance with the school and the state policies because classroom applications are thought together with its hierarchical structure in EL. Similarly, learners are regarded as the center of all classroom practices and thus educational objectives of the school and the state. All materials are presented in a meaningful way which enables learners to see the whole picture first and then getting the necessary knowledge through this holistic structure, not in isolation. Similarly, that is why educational linguists reject segmental phonology, but creat educational phonology to be used in language education. 7.00 EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHER EDUCATION The recent recommendation by Fillmore and Snow (2002) that all teachers need to know quite a bit about language has revived old debates about the role of linguistics in educating teacher trainees. At the beginning of the 20th century, the predominant assumption was that teachers were born and not made, or if they were made, they were self-made. Therefore little attention was paid to the idea of foreign language teacher education. By the 1920s, however, articles began to appear that outlined curricula for the training of high school language teachers. One of the problems confronting teacher education programs in the early years of the century was lack of speaking ability on the part of candidates for certification. Teacher exams were proposed over the years to ensure a reasonable level of proficiency. They were required to pursue general methods and testing courses as well as courses in the psychology of learning. As a consequence, teachers were no longer producers, but were consumers of knowledge related to language learning and teaching. By the 1960s, teachers were expected to demonstrate both subject matter and professional competence. They were required to take courses that focused on the language itself. When linguistics courses were taught, for example, linguists in general had serious problems making linguistics relevant to teaching. Especially interesting is that in a 1964 special issue of the Modern Language Journal, a set of guidelines for teacher preparation was published. Despite the fields best efforts, one problem continued to nag the profession -the low level of language proficiency among future teachers. This was due to the fact that although teachers were knowledgeable about language itself, they were not taught how to present that knowledge in communicative ways (Lantolf, 2000). This great lack in language teacher education became booming in mid 1970s and drew special attention of educational linguists. Then they have proposed that language teachers are not –and should not be- pure linguists, thus they should learn linguistics as it is required by language education. Furthermore, EL also emphasizes that as well as language learners, teacher trainees also should be educated in a holistic and humanistic way which will enable them to teach foreign languages in the same manner, and all practices in teacher education process should aim at revealing trainees full potential in communicative competence. 8.00 EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS’ CONTRIBUTIONS TO FLL / FLT While educational linguistics contributes distinctive disciplinary focus, concepts, methods and history, it also takes distinctive form in each of the following types of curriculum (Spolsky, 2008) and comes up with novel perspectives in curriculum planning. Skills: An economistic-vocationally oriented curriculum: In this kind of curricula, teaching aims to facilitate the acquisition of skills which are seen to be discrete or separately specific, and are taught via pedagogies that stress explicit teaching, identifying sub-skills and teaching these separately and aiming through apprenticeship to combine the subskills. For instance, it may be suitable for â€Å"language for specific purposes†. Eloquence: A humanistic-intellectual paradigm: When curricula are conceptualized as in some sense â€Å"humanizing†, the educational linguistics makes use of notions of eloquence, expression, rhetoric, and elevated culture. Informing learners of timevalidated canonical thought, works of art, and literature distinguishes this class of curricula. Virtue: Paradigms of religion or social ideology: Some curricula aim to reproduce norms of life that derive from ethnicity, religious creed, or moral ideology. Educational linguistics, in this respect, serves unique goals of teaching, content sequencing, assessment, and evaluation associated with modes of practice particular to the ideology of the schools involved. Nationing: The discourse of loyal citizenship to nationality-defined states: Nationing, both in new nations intent on forging identities larger than regional or local ones and in established nations intent on preserving distinctiveness, utilizes linguistic based narration, story telling about national cohesion and unity, or subliminal and continual reminders of the persistence of nationality (Billig, 1995). On the other hand, it gave way to the emergence of Whole Language Approach in 1980s which is also called â€Å"the real books approach† since it used real books instead of coursebooks (Demirezen, 2008). Its focus on meaningful and purposeful communication in language classes enabled it to help students be at ease while communicating. In this respect, it is not wrong to say that Ausubel’s Meaningful Learning Theory is one of the contributions of EL to the teaching and learning foreign languages. As an opposition to the traditional language learning theories, particularly Audiolingualism, it has derived from a cognitive perspective to language learning and teaching, thus attempts to find ways of creating meaningful learning situations in which learners feel comfortable and construct knowledge with their own effort. Participatory approach is another term proposed by educational linguists which means a process through which the views of all interested parties are integrated into the decision-making process ( Alatis, et all. (1996). That is why EL benefits from a number of disciplines to solve an educational problem. Educational linguistics also created a market of materials designed specifically for foreign language learning and teaching. Different text types and application-oriented materials became available all around the world. Furthermore, it became influential on the emergence a number of language teaching methods such as Silent Way, TPR, content-based and task-based language teaching, which are all holistic, humanistic, and problem-oriented in nature. But most importantly, educational linguistics enabled L1 and L2 learning to be an independent field with its own research studies, approaches and applications for better educational opportunities. 9.00 CRITICISM OF EDUCATIONAL LINGUISTICS Educational linguistics is a relatively recent issue that draws scholars’ and researchers’ attention from a number of disciplines and thus takes various reflections concerning its strong sides and inadequacies. They can be listed as follows: 9.01 Advantages of Educational Linguistics It has been understood that there is a need for more research into teachers’ explicit beliefs about, and understanding of, language in order to enable us to understand teachers’ central role as educational linguists, that is, as conscious analyst of linguistic processes. Educational linguists made an attempt to address a fundamental problem –the language barrier to education- i.e. the instance where a child acquires a vernacular language informally and is required by the educational system to acquire a different, standard language (Spolsky, 1974a), a problem which recurs for millions of children daily, weekly, and yearly all over the world. It has elucidated that education and linguistics are in need of each other all the time; especially teaching linguistics to the educators is important so that they can cope with the problems such as teaching vocabulary, reading, and writing. EL follows from this notion that educational linguists variously investigate a host of themes related to individuals, the institutions they inhabit, and the socities in which both are situated, all as they relate to language and education. This holistic perspective makes it so strong and successful. 9.02 Disadvantages of Educational Linguistics Although educational linguistics claims that it is an independent but transdisciplinary field any more, there are some other arguments which insist that it is still a sub-branch of applied linguistics. For instance, van Lier (1994) puts forward that researchers working on language learning should consider themselves to be linguists who do applied linguistics who do educational linguistics. In a similar way, applied linguists also claim that for a discipline to be an independent one, it has to create its own approaches, theories and methods. Therefore, they assert that EL cannot be regarded as a seperate field in this respect. However, the contradiction that applied linguistics –considering itself as an independent field- also does not have its own approaches, theories, or methods weakens this argument. The inadequecy of EL concerning these aspects can be explained best with its being such a young field to produce its own approaches, theories, and methods. In the course of time, educational linguistics is to come up with novel approaches in L1 and L2 learning and improve current practices with more efficient and innovative ones. 10.00 CONCLUSION Concerning Spolsky’s own words; educational linguistics starts with the assessment of a child’s communicative competence on entering school and throughout his or her career, includes the analysis of societal goals for communicative competence, and embraces the whole range of activities undertaken by an educational system to bring its students’ linguistic repertoires into closer accord with those expected by society (1978: viii). With its roots in the controversies of applied linguistics, educational linguistics has grown into a thriving field of inquiry focused on foreign language education. Its transdisciplinary nature has allowed it to flourish in a wide range of disciplinary climates. While this wide range has resulted in an impressively diverse body of knowledge with great potential to influence educational practice, it has also made it challenging to develop a sense of cohesion for educational linguistics as a whole. Although the question â€Å"Do we really need educational linguistics as a separate field? † is still echoing especially at the part of applied linguists, EL has proved that language practicioners are really in need of such a distinct field so as to specifically work on the issues belonging to this particular area: foreign language education. On the other hand, this does not mean that applied linguistics is useless any more. In the case that EL becomes insufficient to solve a particular problem related to language learning and teaching, it is applied linguistics that EL will call upon. In this respect, the two are always in juxtaposition and cannot reject the presence and significance of each other. Even though there are some oppositions concerning its independent structure, today it is obvious that educational linguistics stands powerfully as an independent but at the same time transdisciplinary discipline. This position can be summarized best with the metaphor used by Hornberger (2001): birds on a wire. He says that the shifting and repositioning nature of academic disciplines can be depicted best with this methaphor. When a new one joins their midst; if they refuse to budge, the newcomer will have to fly off again. That is to say, educational linguistics has indeed found a place on the wire amidst its peer disciplines and goes on its way with strong paces. BIBLIOGRAPHY Akar, N. (1991). Educational Linguistics within English Language Teachng Departments in Turkey. Doctoral Dissertation. Hacettepe University. Alatis, J.E., Straehle, C.A., Ronkin, M. and Gallenberger, B. (Eds.). (1996). Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics. Georgetown University Press, Washington, D.C. Attardo, S. and Brown, S. (2005). What’s the Use of Linguistics? Pre-Service English Teachers’ Beliefs towards Language Use and Variation, pp. 91-100. In Applied Linguistics and Language Teacher Education. Bartel, N. (Ed.). Springer, US. Billig, M. (195). Banal Nationalism. London: Sage. Demirezen, M. (2008). Whole Language (Integrated) Approach and Its Aplications to ELT. Hacettepe University (Unpublished). Fillmore, L. and Snow, C. (2002). What teachers need to know about language. In C. Adger, C. Snow, and D. Christian, (Eds.) What Teachers Need to Know About Language. Washington, DC, and McHerry, IL: Center for Applied Linguistics and Delta Systems Co., Inc. Gee, J. P. (2004). Educational Linguistics. In Davies, A. and Elder, C. (eds.). The Handbook of Applied Linguistics. Blackwell Publishing. Hornberger, N.H. (2001). Educational Linguistics as a Field: A View from Penn’s Program on the Occasionof its 25th Anniversary. University of Pennsylvania. Hornberger, N.H and Hult, F.M. (2006). Educational Linguistics. In K. Brown (ed.), Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics. (2nd edn. pp.76-81). Oxford: Elsvier. Hudson, R. (2004). Why education needs linuistics (and vice versa). Linguistics, 40, 105- 130. Cambridge University Press. Kaplan, R. B. and Baldauf, R. B. (1997). Language Planning: From Practice to Theory. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters. Kramsch, C. (2000). Second Language Acquisition, Applied Linguistics, and the Teaching of Foreign Languages. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.84, No.3, pp.311-326. Lantolf, J. P. (2000). Introduction to the Special Issue: A Century of Language Teaching and Research: Looking Back and Looking Ahead. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.84, No.4. pp.467-471. Mehan, H. (1979). Learning Lessons. Cambridge, MA. Harward University Press. Pica, T. (1994). The language educator at work in the learner-centered classroom: Communicate, decision-make, and remember to apply the (educational) linguistics. In J.E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics, 264-288. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. Politzer, R. L. (1958). On the Relation of Linguistics to Language Teaching. The Modern Language Journal, Vol.42, No.2, pp. 65-68. Rigg, P. (1991). Whole Language in TESOL. TESOL Quarterly 25, 521-542. Spolsky, B. (1974). The Navajo Reading Study: An Illustration of the scope and nature of educational linguistics. In J. Qvistgaard (Ed.), Applied Linguistics: Problem and Solutions (Vol.3, pp.553-565). Heidelberg: Julius Groos Verlag. Spolsky, B. (1974a). Linguistics and the language barrier to education. In T.A. Sebeok (Ed.), Current Trends in Linguistics, 12, 2027-2038. The Hague: Mouton. Spolsky, B. (1975). Linguistics in Practice: The Navajo Reading Study. Theory into Practice, 14(5), 347-352. Spolsky, B. (1978). Educational Linguistics: An Introduction. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury House. Spolsky, B. (2003). Educational Linguistics. In W. J. Frawley (ed.), International Encyclopedia of Linguistics. Vol. 1, 502-505. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Spolsky, B. And Hult, F. M. (eds.). (2008). The Handbook of Educational Linguistics. Blackwell Publishng. Stubbs, M. (1986). Educational Linguistics. New York: Basil Blackwell. van Lier, L. (1994). Educational linguistics: Field and project. In J. E. Alatis (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics 1994, 197-209. Washington D.C.: Georgetown University Press. van Lier, L. (2004). The Ecoogy and Semiotics of Language Learning: A Sociocultural Perspective. New York: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Research Papers on Educational LinguisticsStandardized TestingInfluences of Socio-Economic Status of Married MalesResearch Process Part OneThree Concepts of PsychodynamicOpen Architechture a white paperThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseRelationship between Media Coverage and Social andIncorporating Risk and Uncertainty Factor in CapitalEffects of Television Violence on ChildrenThe Project Managment Office System

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Should College Have One Attendance Policy Essay The college should have one attendance policy for all departments. Attendance policy is strange things, and perhaps the strangest thing about them is how often they completely differ from one another. There is no college – wide attendance policy that students must follow, but many departments create their own. Some departments have strict attendance policies, but many times the policy is whatever the professor feels like. I think the college should adopt a more uniform attendance policy for several reasons. First of all, the lack of uniformity can be mind – boggling for student. Attendance policy varies a lot between professors. Some professors don’t enforce these policies; many make up their own and put it in their syllabus. It’s not uncommon for a gen-ed to have a strict attendance policy while an important course for student’s major has a very lenient one. It’s obviously more important that the student attend the major course, but he or she only faces consequences if the gen-ed is missed. Second of all, many department policies are not enforced by professors. This is worse than not having a policy in the first place. How are students supposed to take showing up to class seriously if their teachers don’t? Another reason, attendance policies do not do a good job of reflecting the importance of a class. Furthermore the inconsistent attitudes professors have towards them are confusing to student. Therefore, when faces with so many varying opinions on the importance or unimportance of attendance policies, students lose the basic point. However, every student should attend all classes. Not only are professor there to teach you in the first place, you paid to learn. Not going to class is essentially throwing money away while pretending to be a student. In short, attendance policy at college should be changed in order to be more consistent. Either do away with policies altogether and let the students face the long-term consequences of their actions, or find a policy every professor in the department will stand behind and enforce.

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